CO2 emissions in industry – innovations and challenges

From an expert’s perspective

Emilia Basta, Eco-energy systems engineer

Carbon dioxide (CO2) is a potent greenhouse gas that, when excessively released into the atmosphere, contributes significantly to climate change. This increase in CO2 levels is primarily driven by the combustion of fossil fuels like coal, oil, and natural gas.

CO2 emissions from the combustion of fossil fuels in various sectors, including industry, have been steadily increasing over generations, growing exponentially at a consistent percentage each year. This rising concentration of CO2 in the atmosphere contributes directly to higher temperatures and, consequently, climate warming.

The manufacturing industry, in particular, heavily relies on fossil fuels to power its operations. It’s worth noting that approximately 70% of global CO2 emissions result from the burning of fossil fuels, while deforestation accounts for roughly 25%. An additional 5% is attributed to less noticeable sources like cement production.

In the context of cement production, about 50% of total emissions stem from process-related activities during clinker production, while 40% originate from burning fuels to heat cement kilns. The remaining 10% arises from electricity use and transportation.

It’s evident that the demand for cement will continue to rise, especially in emerging economies as they construct new housing and infrastructure. Therefore, reducing CO2 emissions, not only from fossil fuel combustion but also deforestation and cement production, is of utmost importance for the preservation of our environment.

CO2 emissions in industry – Poland and the world

In the global ranking of countries by carbon dioxide emissions, Poland holds the 22nd position. China leads this classification, followed by the United States in second place and India in third place.

The United States, historically, holds a unique position as a major contributor to cumulative emissions due to its decades-long reliance on coal, oil, and gas, which fueled its economic growth but also significantly contributed to global warming and atmospheric pollution.

However, the global landscape has shifted. China now claims the top spot as the world’s largest carbon dioxide producer, accounting for about one-third (33%) of CO2 emissions. For comparison, in 2021, the United States contributed 12.6% of the world’s total carbon dioxide emissions.

India ranks fourth, responsible for approximately 7% of global emissions, and Russia follows closely behind with a 5% share. Despite India having a population similar to China’s, its carbon dioxide emissions are four times lower than China’s and half of those in the United States.

While India previously heavily relied on coal, its coal consumption growth has slowed down in recent years. There’s a growing focus on developing renewable energy sources, particularly photovoltaics. As part of the Paris Agreement, India has set ambitious targets, aiming for renewables to constitute 40% of its electricity production by 2030 and committing to reduce emissions per unit of GDP by 30-35% by 2030 compared to 2005 levels.

It’s important to consider the European Union as well in the carbon dioxide emissions ranking. The twenty-seven EU countries collectively contribute about 7% of total CO2 emissions in recent years.

The largest CO 2 producers in Poland

In Poland, carbon dioxide emissions primarily stem from industrial facilities engaged in the production of cement, metals, artificial fertilizers, coke, and refined petroleum products. These 56 plants collectively released an estimated 46 million tons of carbon dioxide into the atmosphere.

Moreover, significant quantities of carbon dioxide are discharged into the air by professional power plants in Poland. In 2021, these power plants were responsible for emitting approximately 104.9 million tons of CO2. Additionally, utility heat and power plants contributed around 24 million tons of CO2 emissions, while cement plants released roughly 10.5 million tons of CO2.

Reduction of carbon dioxide emissions

Given the significant volumes of carbon dioxide emissions, often measured in millions of tons, it is imperative to explore ways to reduce these emissions. The majority of CO2 emissions occur during the operational phase of products, emphasizing the need to concentrate on solutions that can curtail carbon dioxide emissions from transportation and machinery.

In recent times, there has been a growing introduction of electric and hydrogen vehicles into the market, albeit not yet at a widespread scale. It’s projected that sales of electric vehicles will surge by 2040, aiming to achieve carbon neutrality by 2050. The potential for fully electric products to nearly eliminate greenhouse gas emissions during their operational phase is contingent on access to electricity sourced from renewables, alongside the expansion of charging infrastructure for these vehicles.

Electric propulsion systems used in electric cars draw energy from batteries or convert hydrogen into electricity. Consequently, combustion engines fueled by alternative sources like biofuels and hydrogen also play a crucial role in lowering CO2 emissions.

Hydrogen stands out as a particularly compelling alternative for heavy-duty trucks covering long distances, offering the potential for significant carbon dioxide reductions. However, for hydrogen-powered trucks to be economically viable and routes to be safe and efficient, a robust network of hydrogen refueling stations is essential.

Reduction of CO ₂ emissions in energy processes

There are several methods to reduce carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions, with a focus on improving energy efficiency and employing CO2 separation in electricity and heat production.

CO2 separation methods encompass absorption, adsorption, membrane separation, and cryogenic techniques. In combustion processes, the most commonly used method for separating CO2 involves washing it from flue gases through chemical absorption.

To decrease CO2 production, it’s crucial to prevent CO2 from mixing with air. In some installations aiming to reduce coal consumption, pet coke, other petrochemical products, biomass, and municipal waste are gasified alongside coal as fuel. This approach results in lower coal consumption. To enhance the profitability of the gasification process, the synthesized gas can undergo processes to separate hydrogen and sulfur before combustion in turbines.

The Hydrocarb process, which is gaining popularity, focuses on obtaining liquid fuels by separating carbon from the fuel. This is achieved through gasifying the fuel with hydrogen, decomposing methane, and synthesizing methanol. The input material for this process can be diverse, including municipal solid waste, char, methane, petroleum fuels, and biomass.

Fuel cells are instrumental in reducing CO2 emissions into the atmosphere. They directly convert the chemical energy of fuel into electricity, enabling high fuel conversion efficiency with minimal emissions of pollutants into the environment.

During oxidation processes, fuel and its oxides are separated from the system. The anode side of fuel waste gases typically contains unprocessed fuel, moisture, and CO2. To increase the CO2 content in the anode gas, recirculation or CO2 conversion processes can be employed.

_{CO 2} separation in gases

The process of carbon dioxide (CO2) separation extends beyond solid or liquid fuels and includes gaseous fuels as well. Various methods are employed to separate CO2 from gases, including:

1. Absorption: In this method, exhaust gases are directed through an absorption column where they come into contact with a liquid that absorbs carbon dioxide. Absorption is particularly useful when a high level of CO2 purity in the product is necessary. Prior to entering the absorber, gases should be cooled and pre-purified, especially to remove sulfur compounds. Sulfur compounds react with the solvent, forming stable thermal salts that don’t break down during regeneration, adding extra costs for solvent replenishment. Absorption can be further categorized into chemical and physical absorption. Physical absorption involves CO2 being absorbed by the regenerated solvent through pressure reduction and temperature increase. This process is conducted at low temperatures to ensure appropriate solubility of the released gas components. The energy required for absorption depends on the solubility of the separated components and the process temperature.
2. Adsorption: Adsorption relies on physical attraction and bonding between gas particles on the surface or within the micropores of a solid material. For CO2 adsorption, materials such as activated carbon, activated coke, carbon and zeolite molecular sieves, corundum, aluminum, and silica gel are commonly used. Adsorption processes are suitable for purifying smaller gas volumes.
3. Membrane Separation: This method involves the use of solid membranes to separate gases. It relies on the differences in physicochemical and chemical interactions between the components of the gas mixture and the membrane material. The membrane splits the gas stream into a permeating gas stream and a retained gas stream. The driving force behind this process is the variation in partial pressures of the contaminants being removed on both sides of the membrane.
4. Cryogenic Separation: In this approach, the gas is compressed and cooled to a specific temperature, after which the separated component is collected in liquid form. In the case of cryogenic CO2 separation processes, energy consumption ranges from 0.04 to 0.1 kWh/kg of CO2 for the purification of compressed synthesis gas from coal gasification, and from 0.6 to 1.0 kWh/kg of CO2 for the purification of exhaust gases.

These various CO2 separation methods offer different advantages and are chosen based on factors like the required purity level, the volume of gases to be treated, and energy efficiency considerations.

Assumptions of the European Union to reduce CO 2 emissions

The European Union (EU) has put in place various programs to tackle climate change. Recently, the European Parliament approved the European Climate Law. This law has two main goals: to reduce greenhouse gas emissions by at least 55% by 2030 and to make sure that all EU member countries achieve climate neutrality (where they release no more emissions than they offset) by 2050. This shows the EU’s strong commitment to fighting climate change and leading the way in global efforts to protect the environment.

Industry and transport infrastructure constraints

To meet its environmental objectives, the European Union has implemented measures to curb carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions across various sectors. One significant step is the establishment of a carbon permit system for industries, where companies need permits for each tonne of CO2 they emit. This system, known as the European emissions trading system, is the world’s largest market for carbon emission allowances. It covers around 40% of the EU’s total greenhouse gas emissions and includes approximately 10,000 power and production plants. In April 2023, the system was updated to align with the European Green Deal’s emissions reduction targets, aiming for a 62% reduction in emissions by 2030 compared to 2005 levels.

Furthermore, restrictions have been imposed on CO2 emissions in the transport sector. Civil aviation, responsible for 13.4% of the EU’s transport-related CO2 emissions, saw changes to its emissions trading system. Aircraft departing and landing outside the EU’s jurisdiction are currently subject to the CORSIA (CO2 Offsetting and Reduction Mechanism for International Aviation) program. Additionally, there are plans to transition aviation fuels to sustainable options like used cooking oil, synthetic fuels, and hydrogen, with the goal of making sustainable fuels constitute 70% of all aviation fuels in EU airports by 2050, starting from 2025.

Sea transport is also targeted for emissions reductions. The maritime sector is tasked with reducing greenhouse gas emissions from ships by 2% from 2025, 14.5% from 2035, and a substantial 80% from 2050, compared to 2020 levels. These regulations apply to ships with a gross tonnage above 5,000, which are responsible for 90% of CO2 emissions in this sector.

Similar efforts are directed toward passenger cars and delivery vans, which account for approximately 15% of CO2 emissions in the EU. The plan is to have these vehicles be zero-emission by 2035, meaning that all new cars entering the EU market from 2035 onward must be CO2-free. Existing vehicles are exempt from these regulations.

To support the transition to zero-emission vehicles, there will be an expansion of sustainable fuel infrastructure. By 2026, electric car charging stations are to be available at least every 60 kilometers on major EU roads, and by 2028, hydrogen refueling stations should be accessible at least every 100 kilometers.

Limitations of the energy sector

In September 2022, the European Parliament established ambitious targets for energy efficiency. The goal is to reduce final energy consumption by a minimum of 40% by 2030 and to decrease primary energy consumption, which encompasses the total energy demand, including electricity generation, by 42.5%.

The proposal for these regulatory changes was presented in March 2023. Initially, EU Member States are collectively aiming for a 11.7% reduction in energy consumption by 2030, with a specific target to achieve average annual energy savings of 1.5% by the end of 2025.

These regulations also extend to heating and cooling in buildings, which currently account for about 40% of the EU’s total energy consumption. They include mandates for renovation strategies and stipulate that all new buildings in the EU must be zero-emission starting in 2030. Additionally, the installation of solar panels on new buildings is required as part of these energy-efficiency measures.

Development of renewable energy sources and carbon fees

To achieve the crucial goals of reducing carbon dioxide emissions and mitigating climate change, a pivotal step is transitioning to “green” or environmentally friendly fuels. Renewable energy sources (RES) play a central role in this shift, offering cleaner alternatives to traditional fossil fuels. At present, more than 20% of the energy consumed within the European Union (EU) is derived from renewable sources.

The expansion of renewable energy sources is an inevitable and critical undertaking. Hydrogen, marine renewable sources, and photovoltaics are among the promising options under consideration. In March 2023, the Parliament and the Council reached a consensus to accelerate the adoption of renewable energy, aligning with the objectives of the Green Deal and reducing dependence on Russian energy.

Under this agreement, the aim is to raise the share of renewable energy in the EU’s final energy consumption to 42.5% by 2030, with individual EU countries striving for 45%. Additionally, a carbon fee has been introduced on imports of goods originating from energy-intensive industries like iron, steel, cement, aluminum, fertilizers, and hydrogen.

Importers will be required to pay the difference between the carbon price paid in the country of production and the carbon price established by the EU Emissions Trading Scheme. This multifaceted approach aims to promote renewable energy adoption while addressing carbon-intensive imports.

Fighting CO2 emissions in industry

Forests play a pivotal role in combating harmful carbon dioxide emissions by serving as natural carbon absorbers. In the European Union, forests are estimated to absorb approximately 7% of the total greenhouse gas emissions.

To enhance this natural solution for sequestering carbon dioxide, new regulations were approved by the European Parliament in April 2023. These regulations require companies to verify that products they sell in the European market have not contributed to deforestation or forest degradation anywhere in the world, promoting responsible sourcing and forest preservation.

However, it’s essential to recognize that global warming is not solely driven by carbon dioxide. To effectively address it, there are also measures in place to restrict other greenhouse gases, including methane, fluorinated gases, and substances that deplete the ozone layer. While these gases are present in smaller quantities in the atmosphere compared to CO2, they can still have a significant impact on global warming, underscoring the importance of comprehensive efforts to mitigate climate change.

Furthermore, it’s important to highlight that addressing the issue of excessive carbon dioxide emissions in the atmosphere requires a multifaceted approach. This includes strategies such as decarbonization, the use of low-emission fuels, and improved soil management practices. Presently, there are numerous initiatives geared towards introducing carbon dioxide capture solutions on a global scale. It’s also worth emphasizing the significance of startups in this context, as their presence and influence in this field are substantial worldwide.

Startups taking up the challenge of fighting CO 2

One startup actively engaged in the battle against CO2 emissions is Earthly Labs, which specializes in small-scale carbon dioxide capture technology. They focus on industries like breweries, post-fermentation waste, and carbonated beverages. Founded in the USA in 2017, Earthly Labs purifies the captured carbon dioxide, transforming it into a reusable liquid suitable for consumption. This process not only benefits the environment but also promotes plant growth, aiding farmers in cultivating vegetables like tomatoes, hemp, and cabbage without the need for excessive artificial fertilizers.

Another noteworthy startup, Carbix, also established in the USA in 2017, employs point capture and direct air capture technology to gather carbon dioxide emissions from various sources, including power plants, geothermal plants, water desalination plants, and natural gas plants. Utilizing flue gas modeling data and computational fluid dynamics (CFD), Carbix extracts carbon dioxide from the plant’s emissions stream, along with raw materials and other minerals. Fast batch reactors are then employed to convert this captured carbon dioxide into net-zero and net-negative building materials.

In Norway, Carbon Solutions, founded in 2016, focuses on developing carbon nanofibers (CNF) using eco-nanotechnology. They convert captured CO2 molecules into carbon and oxygen, with the released oxygen benefiting the environment. This innovative approach contributes to both carbon reduction and the development of valuable materials.

In Greece, a startup called Solmeyea was established in 2018, with a primary focus on producing biologically sourced proteins. Solmeyea specializes in cultivating microalgae that engage in photosynthesis, capturing carbon dioxide and sunlight. This innovative approach aids in food production by reducing the carbon footprint and simultaneously contributes to mitigating excess CO2 levels in the atmosphere.

Moving to the United Kingdom, the startup Carbon Capture Machine is dedicated to the development of machines designed to convert emitted carbon dioxide into a carbon-negative feedstock, effectively working to counteract climate change. They achieve this by dissolving CO2 from various sources in dilute bases, ultimately transforming it into carbonate ions. The resulting carbonate solution reacts with abundant Ca++ and Mg++ ions from brines, yielding carbon dioxide-free precipitated calcium carbonate (PPC). PPC finds applications in diverse industries such as paper, plastics, paints, adhesives, cement, and concrete production.

Another British startup, Parallel Carbon, is actively working on carbon removal technology that not only extracts CO2 from the atmosphere but also generates hydrogen. Employing a combination of geomimicry and electrochemistry, Parallel Carbon offers a cost-effective solution for carbon management. Additionally, the startup produces green hydrogen and other infrastructure materials as valuable by-products, thus creating an additional source of revenue.

Domestic market

Also, it’s important to highlight the significance of the domestic market, where Green Sequest stands out as one of the top 10 rapidly developing cleantech companies in Poland. Their approach centers on employing Enhanced Rock Weathering technology to extract CO2 from the atmosphere. They utilize serpentinite, a type of rock with a high capacity for absorbing CO2, as the key element in this process. Through accelerated rock weathering, Green Sequest achieves the removal of CO2 for an extended period, exceeding 10,000 years. Research indicates that a single ton of serpentinite can effectively eliminate up to 500 kg of CO2.

Green Sequest represents one of the few companies in our region of Europe engaged in this type of carbon removal activity. Poland also boasts several startups working on similar solutions, including Direct Air Capture and Carbon Capture and Storage. These initiatives are being implemented by various entities, including cement plants within the Lafarge and Heidelberg groups.

It’s essential to recognize that, in real-world conditions, there is a potential risk that the CO2 absorption process may be less efficient than observed in laboratory tests. Lower profitability in the overall process could raise questions regarding the feasibility of the entire project.

Dynamic development of the industry

The complete elimination of carbon dioxide emissions in today’s economy, production, and industry remains an unclear and challenging objective. With the current state of development, it’s virtually impossible to entirely eliminate these emissions. However, there is hope for significant reduction in CO2 levels in the near future through ongoing efforts by numerous institutions that are actively developing technologies to capture carbon dioxide from the atmosphere. While complete elimination may be a long-term goal, these advancements offer promise in substantially mitigating the impact of CO2 emissions and steering us towards a more sustainable future.

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